Mendez vs Westminster Essay

We all know of the famous trial that happen on May 17, 1954, a trial that ended all segregation in school districts all over the United States of America. With this law being enforce by the 14th amendment, it change the whole nation, colored people were now being allowed to enter into real academic schools, and compete for a better future. Of course I am talking about the Oliver Brown v. Board of Education of Topeka, better known as Brown vs. the Board of Education. Even though this trial was a large stepping stone in the United States, it was not the first attempt at the desegregation of the school system. There was another case that was the creation of Brown vs. the Board of Education. This case has been forgotten over time due to the huge popularity of Brown vs. the Board of Education. Even though Brown vs. the Board of Education was more popular, both cases were important and had a large amount of similarities. The only differences were that the first was fought seven years prior to the second and a difference of ethnicity. Both cases were important in many ways, the only problem is, why is it that only one is credited and the other not? Both cases were fought for the same reason. Mendez vs. Westminster was the first big court case that stopped segregation in all the schools systems of the state of California. The reason I say this is the stepping stone of Brown vs. the Board of Education is because The Ninth Circuit Court of Appeals ruled in the favor of Mendez vs. Westminster, which concluded to the desegregation of schools all over California; this was the stepping stone to Brown vs. the board of Education because it was seven years prior to the ruling of Brown. The Mendez case was used to back up the Brown vs. Board of Education case and helped shape the ideas of a young NAACP attorney, Thurgood Marshall, it very surprising to people to see that Thurgood Marshall was also a lawyer in the Mendez case. You may be thinking that only LULAC (which is a Latino organization) was the only one involved with this case; but as you now know, the NCAAP contributed their part (Maria Blanco, The Lasting Impact of Mendez v. Westminster in the Struggle for Desegregation, Thu, Mar 25, 2010, http://www. immigrationpolicy. rg/perspectives/lasting-impact-mendez-v-westminster-struggle-desegregation). This was great because it forced two different ethnicities and cultures join together for the same cause, which was to have the same education as white individuals and to desegregate school campuses. We are going to be looking more into the history of the trial Mendez vs. Westminster, as well as how and why it started and similarities between both the Mendez case, a s well as the Brown Case. On April 1947 there was a decision ruling on the Mendez vs. the Board of Education. The United States of America Court of Appeals for the 9th Circuit in San Francisco ruled in favor of Mendez and the other parents that stood up to the Westminster School District. Judge McCormick stated that â€Å"according to California Laws the segregation of Mexican-American public school children in the absence of a state law mandating their segregation violate California law as well as the equal protection of the law clause of the Fourteenth Amendment to the U. S. Constitution (A History of Mexican Americans in California, Wed, Nov 17 2004 10:00:00 pm PDT http://www. cr. nps. gov/history/online_books/5views/5views5h99. htm)†. The reason this lawsuit did not go all the way to the Supreme Court was because in the Court’s ruling, it noted that the United States Supreme Court’s segregation decisions were not controlling because, at this time, there was no Hispanic race; In this era all Mexican Americans were considered Caucasian. â€Å"The key fact . . . was that California’s Education Code did not specifically provide for segregation of children of Mexican origin. . . . And since California law did not allow for separate Mexican schools, the requirement that children at tend such schools could be considered arbitrary action taken without ‘due process of law. †(Charles Wollenberg, All Deliberate Speed, 1976, p. 127) This case could not have gone to the Supreme Court because the law of the state said nothing about segregating Mexican Americans in the Constitution (http://www. cr. nps. gov/history/online_books/5views/5views5h99. htm)†. On Brown vs. the Board of Education it was a little different, because Black was considered a different race; and according to the Plessey vs. Ferguson case of 1896, it states it could segregate a race, as long as it provides a separate but equal law (http://www. cr. nps. gov/history/online_books/5views/5views5h99. tm). Now that we know a little bit more information about the trial, lets learn why all the Mexican American parents got together in order for their kids to get the same education as all the other Caucasian kids in the neighborhood. It all started in the late 1920s-1930s. As the Mexican and Mexican American population started to increase in California, more white Americans started getting scared; this led to segregation in schools. Not only were schools getting segregated but housing was also being segregated as well (Maria Blanco, The Lasting Impact of Mendez v.  Westminster in the Struggle for Desegregation, pg. 2 Thu, Mar 25, 2010). It all started in 1945 with Gonzalo and Felicitas Mendez, who were new to the city and had just moved to a farm in Westminster. The reason they moved to Westminster was because they had leased a farm there from a Japanese family, due to Roosevelt’s executive order 9066. As the Mendez family sent their kids to the public school closest to their neighborhood one early morning, which was the Seventeenth Street School, Westminster, in Orange County. The parents were shocked when both kids had to return, because they could not attend the school do to their race. They had to attend the Mexican American School that was further away. That was not the only case, the Mexican American schools that were built for the children, were unethical. The 17th Street School was not only brand new, but it also had had a beautiful playground, it had a nice cafeteria, it had good educators that could help the students, and do not forget a non-electronic fence. How could you compare that with Hover, which was the Mexican school? Hover was old and next to a cow pasture that was made out of old barracks WESTCOTT, JOHN. â€Å"OUR LEGACY: MILLENNIUM MOMENTS Family Rejected `Mexican School’; Mendez Vs. Westminster Ended State Segregation Ahead of U. S: MORNING Edition. † Orange County Register,1999). Robbie who was one of the Mexican American students, that was supposed to attend 17th Street School, but because of his ethnicity had to go to the other school Hover explains his experience, â€Å"†¦It was a terrible little shack, I don’t even remember having any monkey bars or any swings or anything like that to play with. In fact when we had to eat lunch, we would go outside and eat lunch at the tables that were next to the cow pasture. There was wire around the cow pasture to keep the cows out, but it was electrocuted. There was a little bit of electricity; at that time it was allowed to have a little bit of electricity on the wires to keep the cows from getting too close to the fence†¦ (Espinosa, Martina, California hidden curriculum: institutional Discrimination in the Fourth Grade, pg. 57)†.

Henry David Thoreau and Resistance to Civil Government Essay

Henry David Thoreau was the most active participant in the Transcendentalist movement. He was a student and mentee of Ralph Waldo Emerson. While Emerson had transcendental ideas, Thoreau would act on them and fully practice them. Hence, he felt that he and others should resist America’s Civil Government. I heartily accept the motto, â€Å"That government is best which governs least†; and I should like to see it acted up to more rapidly and systematically. (Thoreau) Thoreau starts out his famous essay with the statement that government should be weak and the people strong. He was a strong advocate of the individual the rights of the individual. To him, a person should be self reliant, as Emerson taught. He felt that the more citizens relied on their government for their needs, then the stronger the government would become and that could be dangerous. He felt that being controlled by a government, or anything else for that matter, was a tragedy in a person’s life. The main reason that Thoreau wrote Resistance to Civil Government was because he was completely tired of a government that could allow slavery to exist. Slavery was an institution in the Southern states where people actually owned African Americans. He felt that if it was wrong for a government to have to much power over the individual and his/her rights, then surely it was wrong for another human to own another. In the institution of slavery, the slave has no rights at all. Slaves were made to work extremely hard. Thoreau had nothing against hard work for an individual’s own self-reliance, but the slave did not benefit from his/her work. The owner reaped all of the profit. They did not get to choose their profession, it was illegal to teach them to read or write, many owners beat them, and they could be sold away from their families at any time. The owner controlled everything about them even life and death. Slavery went against everything that Thoreau believed about government and the individual. If it was true that it government should have as little control as possible, then it was an abomination that this kind of power could control another. Thoreau was so appalled that a government that claimed in its constitution that all men were created equal, could turn a blind eye to the institution of slavery. He decided that since his tax dollars went to a government that supported such an institution, he would no longer pay his taxes. He hoped that he could inspire others who proclaimed abolitionist thoughts would do the same. However, they did not. In fact when Emerson came to the jail to post his bond, he asked Thoreau why he was in jail. Thoreau responded by asking Emerson why he was not in there with him. Thoreau’s idea of civil disobedience to a government that is not of the people has been successful for several generations after Thoreau’s death. He impacted the lives of such great men as Ghandi and the Reverend Martin Luther King, Jr. King used Thoreau’s method and turned a nation around and forced it to recognize the civil rights of all people by Resistance to Civil Government. Thoreau and his idea of peaceful protest will remain an affective way to change governments for generations to come.

Equality, Diversity and Inclusion in Work with Children Essay

Inclusive practice is identifying and understanding any barriers that are stopping children from completing the activity. We have to make sure that whatever the child’s background they are able to fully join in with everything within the school. This will make the children feel valued and have a sense of belonging. Inclusion does not mean that we view each other the same or provide the same work, it is about making sure we are making adaptions to the activity instead of making a child do a completely different activity and make sure we are providing the same opportunities. We need to take on board and accept that the child is different. Medical model of Disability- The medical model is based on that children must adapt to the environment that exists, for example in my school there is down’s syndrome boy he attends all lessons, but he has a support worker who is helping him. We assume that the child will adapt to our atmosphere, this means that the boy will depend more and more of others to help him. Social Model of Disability- The social model is more about the school adapting things to suit the child, so they have more independence. Changing the physical environment, which could be ramps or lower shelves for children with disabilities to reach. Providing information such as symbols or sign language The curriculum can be modified with additional support or adjustments to assessments. Describe the features of an Inclusive Setting We often talk about the atmosphere of a school. This relates to a feeling that everyone in the school matters and all play their own part in school life. When entering my school I felt relaxed and excited about being able to volunteer at this school. The reception area was colourful and full of children’s work. The staff seemed friendly and made me feel welcome in their school. It is a clean, fresh and modern school. An inclusive setting is setting which uses a whole school approach to learning, working within a team. Where any barriers are found, strategies need to be used to remove them. When working with special education needs children it is important to focus on what they are good at rather then what they can’t do. So for example: Two children are sitting in their place in the classroom and they are running behind with copying the work from the board, they are sat in a position where they have their backs to the board. So to overcome this barrier I will ask to move them so they can see the board more clearly and catch up with the work. A school with inclusive practice will have the following features: * Barriers are recognised:  This could be from the parents, assessments, observations or staff noticing * Barriers will be removed or minimised: This can be done by arranging outside agencies to come in to the school and to change the environment for example ramp instead of steps * Pupils will be educated alongside their peers: A child who cannot do the work the class is doing should not be moved to a different room, they need to stay in the classroom and have more access to support or equipment that will help them. * Children are given the chance to use their own voice to air their views and opinions which will be listened to: They should be involved in what they need, asked what barriers to be removed which will help them and asked simple questions about how the activity went and if they enjoyed it. A good way of letting children have a voice is a school council or a radio station. * There will be clear policies and procedures: All policies and procedures will be reviewed regularly and made clear to all staff * Staff will receive regular training relating to inclusion: Staff members would be offered regular training when it comes to inclusion, diversity and equality of opportunities. * The school will work in partnership with stakeholders: These will be parents, staff members or other outside agencies * It will also work in partnership with other services: This will be speech therapist, doctors, health visitors, social services to make sure that children are given professional help. Case Study: Inclusive practice Sean has just qualified as a teaching assistant and has started his new post at a large primary school. It is his first week and so that he gets to know the school, staff and children, he has been asked to work alongside Kira, an experienced teaching assistant who has been at the school for a number of years. Sean joined Kira who was working with a group of 7 year old children making 3D models. Sean noticed one of the children, Jamie, sitting at the side just watching and asked where his model was. Kira’s reply was that because of his disability (cerebral palsy), Jamie had difficulty in using the tools and materials. She said that she asks him to read a book during the art and craft lesson. Suggest how Jamie might feel – Jamie would feel left out, upset and wandering why he is being left out. He might feel embarrassed or that he has done something wrong. Jamie could be bullied about the situation and children might leave him out during playtime etc. Loneliness and isolated could be another feeling he might experience. What message does this give to other children in the group-? Other children might get the impression that he can’t do anything and end up doing everything for him. They might think that he is stupid or start to leave the child out in activities as they have watched staff members doing it. The children might refuse to do the activity as Jamie is seen not doing it and they might start to bully Jamie. Which policies, codes and legislation Sean refer to when challenging the exclusive practice with Kira- Diversity, inclusion, equality, discrimination act but most of all every child matters Sean will support this group in future weeks. How can he ensure that Jamie is included? He could research more about the condition that Jamie has, to be able to have more knowledge and help improve his support towards him. He could help plan the lesson with activities that Jamie could be involved with. Also giving Jamie a voice and asking him what activities he is able to do or how they can change them. Educate the other children about cerebral palsy so they can help Jamie out. Describe how inclusion works in your own sector of the children’s workforce All staff who work with children must all have a common understanding of values and principles of inclusion. The way that these are put into practice will be different with each role within education and care of the children. The Early Years Foundation and National Curriculum give us clear guidance on an inclusive approach to learning and assessment. ‘Providers have a responsibility to promote positive attitudes to diversity and difference, so that every child is included and not disadvantaged’ This is a statement from Early Years foundation Stage about the duty of settings to meet the needs of all children in relation to their learning and development. The National Curriculum Inclusion statement states that schools must apply a whole- school method to both the national and wider curriculum and that school’s must: * Provide a curriculum which ensures active participation and achievement of all pupils * Recognise pupils entitlement to high- quality learning experiences * Meet the needs and interest of all pupils  * Recognise and overcome potential barriers to learning and assessment

Business Resources Assignment Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 2750 words - 1

Business Resources - Assignment Example In corporate and large organizations, well defined resource management teams are appointed to ensure optimum allocation of all resources and to avoid over or under allocation of same resources in multiple projects at a time. In this paper, allocation and management of human, technical, physical and financial resources will be evaluated. For the purpose of the study, the resource management techniques of Waitrose will be analysed for getting an insight of the company’s resource management. Waitrose is a UK based supermarket chain and retail division of Britain’s largest employee owned retailer John Lewis Partnership with headquarter in Berkshire. As per the reports of 2014, Waitrose currently has 317 stores across the UK including 30 Little Waitrose, making the retail based grocery superstore the sixth largest in the United Kingdom. The company also have the warrant of supplying groceries, wine and spirits to the royal family of Queen Elizabeth (Waitrose.com, 2015). Duri ng the course of study, how Waitrose has been successful in identifying and managing its critical resources to ascertain smooth running of such well expanded business will be examined in details. Recruitment documentation may be defined as the system of filling up information related to personal, educational and working qualifications, required at the time of applying for a job. The process consists of collecting copies of application forms and all supporting document of the information provided from all individuals present in the panel and interested in applying for the particular job opening. Recruitment documentation ensures consistency, standardization and streamlining the recruitment process for the HR and administrative personnel of a company (Armstrong, 2006). Requirement for recruitment documentation varies according to companies and job profiles. For instance, for a job profile of Supermarket Assistance in Waitrose, the requirements specified by the company show

Introduction to Mass Media Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 2000 words - 1

Introduction to Mass Media - Essay Example Thus, Leo Bogart of the Newspaper Advertising Bureau observed that in the 1992 Winter Olympics, the CBS coverage was crammed with so many ads that the event itself has been relegated to a â€Å"mere sideshow.† Media is also a business concern and media organizations need advertising revenues to survive, but too much of ads smack of greed and present an irritating distraction to consumers. Regulating the volume of ad placement in media will not work, as demonstrated in the US when the National Association of Broadcasters required radio and TV stations to limit the quantity of their commercials in a given program as part of a code of ethics for the broadcast industry. The stations protested and the federal court subsequently ruled against the NAB-ordered limitation as arbitrary and monopolistic. Therefore, the best way to solve the problem of advertising clutter, I think, is to leave the matter alone to consumer welfare groups since it is the consumers themselves who feel slighted by this media practice. There are well-organized consumer groups everywhere who can mount a campaign to persuade newspapers and magazines, radio and TV networks to moderate their ad placements by appealing on their common sense and spirit of fair play. Among the possible arguments is that by serving up more ads than content, the newspapers or stations might alienate their readers or listeners who will feel that their interest is being subordinated to monetary considerations. Regulatory bodies like the Advertising Standards Canada have helped advance consumer interest in such areas as public health, child welfare and quality programming. For example, the ASC edict controlling or banning ads on alcoholic beverages in broadcast media, depending on the age and educational level of a program’s target audience, certainly promotes public health and well-being through responsible consumption of alcohol. The same benefit is derived from

Environmental Impact Assessment Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 2750 words

Environmental Impact Assessment - Essay Example In view of this the need for a well-developed account of how scientific research ought to be integrated into public policy in general and into environmental policy in particular has never been more urgent (Thompson, 1986; Stonehouse & Mumford, 1995; Litfin, 1994). This article makes a contribution to the ongoing debate by examining one of the newer, and fast-growing, scientific fields, i.e., environmental impact assessment (from hereon EIA) with the aim of highlighting the question of uncertainty and its implications for policy dependent on this field. EIA is a relatively new field, and most accounts date its inception to the passage of the National Environmental Policy Act in 1969 in the United States. From this rather limited and inauspicious beginning EIA has now spread to almost all countries. In addition, bi- and multi-lateral agencies have now or are in the process of incorporating EIA at some stage in their policy process (Goodland & Edmundson, 1994). There are almost as many definitions of EIA as there are experts and, naturally, each expert has a preferred definition. Briefly, however: EIA may be described as a process for identifying the likely consequences for the biogeophysical environment and for man's [sic] health and welfare of implementing particular activities and for conveying this information at a stage when it can materially affect their decision, to those responsible for sanctioning the proposals. (Munn, 1979:6) In the early stages of its use, the EIA process was seen as a forecasting technique to provide decision makers with an indication of the possible consequences of a proposed intervention. This conceptualisation has been criticized on the grounds that it tends to relegate EIA to being a type of "add on" process. It can be argued that using EIA in this fashion feeds public suspicion that EIA is another scientific technique coopted by policymakers to legitimate decisions. Technical specialists have continuously agitated for closer integration of EIA in the policy process as a means of overcoming this limitation. Policymakers, however, are reluctant to integrate EIA any further into the policy process for several reasons. Two of the most significant of these are: 1. the cost of the impact assessment process makes policymakers reluctant to embark on impact assessment before a proposed project has been given the "green light;" and 2. there is a perception that EIAs make negative information about proposed interventions available to opponents. Thus, further integration of EIA, for example, from project to program level is seen by policymakers as being tantamount to giving opposing stakeholder interests an overview of the entire program. Both of these views gain credence from the fact that EIA reports have often been the baseline documents in well-publicized disputes between governments and environmental activists. Notable cases include the Alaskan pipeline dispute (Gray & Gray, 1977:509-14) and the Hydro Quebec Power Plant controversy (Gariepy & Henault, 1994). Impact identification is usually accompanied by a scoping process in which the probable impacts worthy of study are singled out. Ideally, this process

Analysis of Three Books in Literacy Development among Children Essay

Analysis of Three Books in Literacy Development among Children - Essay Example The aim of the commentary will be to develop a case study using various approaches. The three sources acknowledge the fact that earlier cognitive abilities by children are essential for future literacy development. Arnold (2003) indicates the process that enhances Harry’s cognitive ability. At this point, the mother plays an important role in ensuring Harry undergoes the learning process successfully. Adams (1990) states that early cognitive ability determines how a child will grasp literacy concepts while in school. Adams applies the concept to a child’s earlier phonemic awareness using an earlier cognitive ability. Peccei (2006) uses the cognitive ability of a given child to recognize complex structure words. The common approaches the three authors deploy relates to Piaget cognitive theory. The three concepts of the theory are visible in the books in that parents and the pre-school environment is identified by the authors as Schemas. They also indicate the development of this cognitive ability through different stages before a child is enrolled into the formal educational systems. The books, however, use different writing style. Arnold (2003) uses a descriptive style where he gives a day-to-day account of Harry and hence giving the reader the ability to make a conclusion based on the events. Harry’s life events are based on observations and the author uses these events to ascertain the early cognitive ability of a child. Peccei (2006) and Adams (1990) use an analytical approach in displaying cognitive abilities among children. They both draw from existing researchers to explain certain events in a given child’s life. They analyze the environment in which children would best learn their cognitive ability and focuses majorly on the literacy developmental stages. The differences in style indicate the diverse nature in which cognitive abilities are displayed and learned.  Ã‚  

Cultural health style Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 500 words

Cultural health style - Essay Example Access to highly advanced medical technologies and to good medical services are the two general health disparities quite common to African Americans. Quaye (2005) remarks that there are barriers in accessing medical care especially to the African-American cultural group. And these barriers go beyond the economic facet. Access to the health care system in America is racially embedded. Particularly to pregnant women, â€Å"African American women are twice as likely as whites to receive no health care at all† (as cited in Quaye, 2005, p. 2). Cockerham further notes that if pregnant African American women were ever to receive a medical care service, it only occurred in the last trimester of their pregnancies (as cited in Quaye, 2005). Johnson (1999) admits that it is not always possible for African Americans to access and receive medical services and even to â€Å"obtain the care they need† (p. 5). Besides the lack of accessing the health services characterized in the Ameri can medical setting, the African Americans hardly receive the services that are substantially high standard, let alone proper to their medical needs. For instance, African Americans undergo an amputation procedure which is â€Å"3.6 times as frequent among Blacks as whites† (as cited in Quaye, 2005, p. 2).

Produce a bid document for Beijing,China towards The 2018 Youth Essay

Produce a bid document for Beijing,China towards The 2018 Youth Olympic Games - Essay Example It presents into a full glare, the spicy hot port on lantern-lit ghost streets that live every individual mesmerized. As a bid document for Beijing, China towards The 2018 Youth Olympic Games, this paper justifies the countries capability in hosting the games. This capital city is China’s political, economic, cultural and transportation center covering an area of 16,800 square kilometers. The city is characterized by a semi-humid continental climate, which will make the country a daze of excitement for the visiting participants of the 2018 Youth Olympic Games (Xu, 2008:198). The entire nation welcomes the chance to host these forthcoming games and the world will be opened to see the numerous palaces, imperial gardens, temples, pagodas, stone carvings, and captivating chronological sites. China has grown to become one of the super powers the world is taking pleasure in. With its deep-seated technology and the good international relations, the country’s economy pledges a full support in hosting this prestigious world sports. The country has sustainable and reliable services, which gives a guarantee to establishing the necessary facilities. The infrastructural ad architectural designs are best suited to meet the international standards of the International Olympic Committee (IOC). After the country’s stable economy successfully sustained the previous 2008 Olympics, the country has shown maturation. The economic is unwavering and the ongoing indoor preparations are true picture of how the country is ready (Alexandre and Mendes, 2011:3). The government fully pledges support. It is in good faith that the government will want present a prospect to the entire the human race how democratic, refined, open, responsive, and harmonious it is. The government guarantees universal human rights. The word of honor assures the world freedom of movement, thought, conscience, assembly, religion, association and access to information elaborates the

Models of Mental Illness Essay Example for Free

Models of Mental Illness Essay According to authors Robert Perrucci and Steven Wallach, the three models of mental illness are the medical, the behavioral and the societal reaction models. (271). The medical model of mental illness focuses on the structural or physical abnormalities in a patient’s brain which trigger the mental illness. It is concerned with the treatment of the illness and prevention thereof. Thus, this model requires that sufficient psychiatric care with appropriate medication by competent physicians and treatment teams be provided to the patients. It involves paying attention to the biological issues of patients through medical procedures such as the careful monitoring of intended effects and side effects of the treatment, the identification of new problems pertaining to the physical, mental and emotional problems of the patients as they occur, the detection of both acute and residual symptoms as they emerge, the elimination from the entire treatment of toxic chemicals and unnecessary drugs, and the administration of a balanced nutritional diet, an adequate rest and sleep schedule and a regular aerobic exercise program for the patients. (cited in University of South Carolina School of Medicine Psychiatric Rehabilitation) The behavioral model of mental illness, on the other hand, focuses on the series of maladaptive behaviors demonstrated by the patient as a result of his irrational pattern of thinking and perceiving. This model requires the therapeutic alliance of the patient with a person who gives him encouragement, respect and a reality orientation, and then motivates and leads him to be busy with productive activities that are comfortable and useful. It further involves providing the patient ample support and assistance in dealing with how people would normally react to his illness, in developing a balance between over- and under-stimulation, in establishing a relaxed atmosphere and a regular daily routine, in gently encouraging the substitution of inappropriate behaviors with responsible adult behaviors, and in asserting the patient’s â€Å"competence† identity as opposed to an unwholesome and ill identity which only leads him to alienation and self-pity. (cited in University of South Carolina School of Medicine Psychiatric Rehabilitation) Meanwhile, the societal reaction model of mental illness focuses on how the patients are treated by other people. It explores whether each particular patient is perceived by society as a disturbance, given the behavior that he exhibits as a consequence of his mental illness. Moreover, it examines the degree or extent of illness or abnormality that a patient is considered to have in the context of the varying norms of groups and societies. After all, every individual is subject to a set of rules and norms that define what is acceptable and not, what is right and wrong, and what is good and bad. These rules vary as to situations, locations and cultures. This model of mental illness focuses on a patient’s inability to find for himself a sense of purpose, peace, harmony, and health in the family or community he belongs to, as would have been necessary for him to attain personal and social success. Furthermore, this model requires that the patient be taught and guided to develop and maintain the skills and abilities necessary for becoming a healthy and normal member of the society. It also emphasizes the need for the patients to be assisted in learning survival skills including psychosocial and occupational rehabilitation, in developing communication and problem-solving skills and in establishing a social network that would be supportive of them. (cited in University of South Carolina School of Medicine Psychiatric Rehabilitation)

Conceptual Framework And Why Is It Needed Accounting Essay

Conceptual Framework And Why Is It Needed Accounting Essay According to FASB, the conceptual framework is a coherent system of interrelated objectives and fundamental concepts that prescribes the nature, function, and limits of financial accounting and reporting and that is expected to lead to consistent guidance. It is intended to serve the public interest by providing structure and direction to financial accounting and reporting to facilitate the provision of unbiased financial and related information. In short, conceptual framework establishes the concepts that underlie financial reporting and it serves as a guidance to flow consistently from an objective by showing a set of theory of accounting with concepts which are prepared by a standard-setting board. Elliott Elliott, 2009 stated that it also determines bounds for judgement in preparing financial statements as it increases financial statement users understanding of, and confidence in, financial statements and enhances comparability. Standard settings are based on individual or personal concept. However, with the presence of conceptual framework, more useful and more consistence pronouncements will be issued over time and thus, a coherent system will be developed. Another need of conceptual framework is that, profession users should be able to more quickly solve new and emerging practical problems by referring to an existing framework of basic theory. All regulatory bodies have been flayed because they have used piecemeal approaches, solving one accounting issue at a time. Observers have alleged that not enough tidy rationality has been used in the process of accounting policymaking. Again and again, critics have cited a need for a conceptual framework. (Horngren 1981, p.94) Body the argument Hines (1989, p.89) argues that conceptual frameworks are a strategic manoeuvre for providing legitimacy to standard-setting boards during periods of competition or threatened government intervention. The basis of Hines argument is that standard-setting boards they established concepts such as objectivity, reliability or neutrality to act as a platform to legitimate its profession. As one of the main obstacles against which accountants have continually had to struggle in their professionalization quest, has been the threat of an apparent absence of a formal body of accounting knowledge, and that creating the perception of possessing such knowledge has been an important part of creating and reproducing their social identity as a profession. This could thus lead to the intervention of the outsiders such as the government, due to its instability. However, the concepts or known as conceptual framework projects are created to sustain the perception that financial accounting professions has been, or at the very least, is capable of having a formal knowledge base from which practices and standards derive. This could be why some researchers believe that conceptual framework could play another more political role, in reducing the threat of government intervention. It is said to be a strategic manoeuvre for providing legitimacy to standard setting boards because it assist in socially constructing the appearance of a coherent differentiated knowledge base for accounting standards. These projects however still remained to exist and are continually undertaken by professionals even if they have generally failed to accomplish their stated functional purposes. This could explain why a conceptual framework does not exist in countries where governmental agency is in charge of standard setting. Countries such as the United Kingdom, United States of America, Canada and Australia were some of the countries which first developed the national accounting conceptual framework and these are the countries where standard setting has pretty much been delegated to the accounting profession. These professional accountants have succeeded to a substantial degree in their professionalization project where they are largely self-regulated. On the other hand, conceptual framework projects have not been undertaken in France, Germany or Japan where accounting rules is largely determined by government legislation. Stated by Hines, government legislation of accounting procedures does not r equire the authority and legitimacy of an image of a coherent theoretical foundation. (Hines, 1989:86) The history of conceptual frameworks does appear to provide some support for Hines perspective. Peasnell (1982) have discussed five conceptual framework projects which are undertaken in the United Kingdom, United States of America and Canada; which each circumstance suggests that they were strategic responses undertaken by accounting bodies at times of threat to their legitimacy or during periods of competition or threatened government intervention. First of the five projects was the formation of the Accounting Principles Board (APB) by the American Institute of Certified Public Accountants (AICPA) in the 1959 which resulted mounting professional and legal criticisms on both the quality of corporate reporting practices and the early attempts of the AICPA to remedy matters. (Peasnell, 1982, p.244) APB was criticised by government and also being rejected by the industry. However, the criticisms were then suppressed about five years later after the approval of APB Statement No.4 (APBS4) which states Basic Concepts and Accounting Principles Underlying Financial Statements of Business enterprises. (Peasnell, 1982, p.245) However, the failed results from the first project had doubled. The second project was the FASB which was established as recommended by the Wheat Report (AICPA, 1972) and also the publication of Trueblood Report (AICPA, 1973). The latter in effect, handed over to the newly established FASB, was also criticised and opposed by the industry and was not acted upon by the FASB. According to Peasnell (1982), the third conceptual framework project was bespoke in the United Kingdom by the Accounting Standards Steering Committee as The Corporate Report (ASC, 1975). As discussed by Hopwood (1988), this report is an attempt to outline some of the possible implications for corporate reporting of a change in the social and political environment. However, there are no significant challenge to its legitimacy and thus, this report was treated with indifference. The forth conceptual framework attempt discussed is the conceptual framework established by the Financial Accounting Standard Board (FASB). It is established in response to the criticisms of the professions standard setting and was subject to the onus of demonstrating its authority and legitimacy to set standards. It has becoming apparent that the accounting standards being set could lead to significant economic consequences, both to business and even nationally. The final conceptual framework projects discussed by Peasnell (1982) is bespoke on behalf of the Canadian Institute of Chartered Accountants (CICA, 1980) and the work was commenced at the time when the body was under threat for reform and criticisms of accounting standards setting in Canada. The circumstances to counter these issues are that they are used as a strategic resource in competition with other groups which are pursuing professionalization and threatening the autonomy and monopoly of entrenched organisations. Conclusion The conceptual framework first started off by emerging in the accounting area as a solution to the inconsistencies of standards which had led to a low legitimacy of standard setting bodies. It had eventually becoming a useful tool for account preparers when preparing reports. However, as defended by Hines and some other authors such as Peasnell, 1982, its main function could be a political one. It has been argued and criticised continuously that conceptual frameworks are a strategic manoeuvre for providing legitimacy to standard-setting boards during periods of competition or threatened government intervention and the history of the development of conceptual frameworks which supports Hines position has proved so. Moreover, according to Peasnell (1982), the only way to prove that standards are developing in a fair, logical and highly professional manner is by having both responsibility and power of developing standards delegated to the same body, like the IASB. Establishing consistent principles will constitute guidance for the production of standards. It is not only a technical tool for the standard setter but also a way of preserving its independence. Lastly, with consistent principles, the standard setter is supposed to be better armed to promote its standards and to avoid lobbying pressure.